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Shellfish-Derived Multifunctional Oligopeptides: Novel Therapeutic Agents Targeting Atherosclerosis

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Abstract
거품세포 형성은 죽상동맥경화증 및 관련 심혈관 질환(CVD) 진행에서 중요한 과정입니다. 해양 유래 생리활성 펩타이드(BAP)는 다양한 건강상의 이점을 보여주었습니다. 본 연구는 청홍합 유래 펩타이드 PIISVYWK(P1) 및 FSVVPSPK(P2), 그리고 백합조개 유래 펩타이드 LLRLTDL(Bu1) 및 GYALPCDCL(Bu2)의 항죽상동맥경화 효과를 in vitro 및 in vivo에서 조사하였습니다. 이들의 효과는 산화 저밀도 지단백질(oxLDL)에 의해 유도된 거품세포 형성 억제 및 내피 기능 장애 완화를 바탕으로 평가되었습니다. 4가지 펩타이드는 모두 oxLDL로 처리한 RAW264.7 대식세포 및 인간 대동맥 평활근 세포(HASMC)에서 지질 축적을 감소시켜 거품세포 형성을 유의미하게 억제했습니다. 이들은 콜레스테롤 대사를 조절하여 콜레스테롤 배출을 촉진하고 유입을 억제함으로써 총 콜레스테롤(TC), 유리 콜레스테롤(FC), 콜레스테롤 에스터(CE), 중성지방(TG) 수준을 감소시켰습니다. 메커니즘적으로, 스캐빈저 수용체 SR-A1 및 CD36 의 발현을 억제하고, 콜레스테롤 배출 수송체 ABCA1 및 ABCG1 의 발현을 증가시켰습니다. 이는 PPAR-γ와 LXR-α 발현 증가를 통해 매개되었습니다. Bu1 및 Bu2 의 거품세포 형성 억제 효과는 PPAR-γ를 siRNA 로 억제할 경우 반전되었으며, 이는 PPAR-γ 신호 경로의 중요성을 강조합니다. 또한, PPAR-γ 작용제 xviii 티아졸리딘디온과 Bu1 및 Bu2 를 병용 처리한 경우 효과가 증대되어, 대식세포 거품세포 형성 조절에서 이 경로의 역할이 더욱 부각되었습니다. 거품세포 형성 억제 외에도, 모든 펩타이드는 강력한 항염증 및 항산화 특성을 나타냈습니다. P1 과 P2 는 NF-κB 활성화를 억제함으로써 염증성 사이토카인, 산화질소(NO), 프로스타글란딘 E2(PGE2), 유도 산화질소 합성효소(iNOS), 사이클로옥시제나아제-2(COX-2) 수준을 유의미하게 감소시켰습니다. 이들은 또한 Nrf2/HO-1 경로를 활성화하여 산화 스트레스를 완화했습니다. Bu1 및 Bu2 역시 염증성 사이토카인 생산과 NF-κB 핵 내 이동을 억제했습니다. OxLDL 로 처리된 인간 제대정맥내피세포(HUVEC)에서, 모든 펩타이드는 세포 생존율과 NO 수준을 회복시켜 내피 보호 효과를 보였습니다. 이들은 내피 산화질소 합성효소(eNOS) 발현을 증가시키고 LOX-1 발현을 억제했습니다. 또한, 펩타이드는 항세포자멸 효과를 나타내어 Bax와 활성형 카스파제-3 발현을 감소시키고, 시토크롬 C 방출을 억제하며, 미토콘드리아 막 전위(MMP)를 복원하고 Bcl-2 발현을 증가시켰습니다. 아울러, 펩타이드는 ROS(활성 산소종) 수준을 감소시키고 항산화 효소(SOD, CAT, GPx) 활성을 회복하며 말론디알데하이드(MDA) 수준을 감소시킴으로써 oxLDL 에 의해 유도된 산화 스트레스를 완화했습니다.|Foam cell formation is a critical process in the progression of atherosclerosis and its associated cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Marine-derived bioactive peptides (BAPs) have demonstrated diverse health benefits. In this study, we investigated the anti-atherosclerotic effects of blue mussel-derived peptides PIISVYWK (P1) and FSVVPSPK (P2) and ark shell- derived peptides LLRLTDL (Bu1) and GYALPCDCL (Bu2) both in vitro and in vivo. Their activity was assessed based on their ability to inhibit oxidized LDL (oxLDL)-induced foam cell formation and endothelial dysfunction. All four peptides significantly inhibited foam cell formation by reducing lipid accumulation in oxLDL-treated RAW264.7 macrophages and primary human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs). They decreased total cholesterol (TC), free cholesterol (FC), cholesterol esters (CE), and triglycerides (TG) by promoting cholesterol efflux and suppressing cholesterol influx. This was achieved by downregulating the expression of cholesterol influx-related proteins class A1 scavenger receptor (SR-A1) and cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) and upregulating efflux-related proteins ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA-1) and ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 1 (ABCG-1). Additionally, the peptides enhanced the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) and liver X receptor alpha (LXR-α). Transfection with PPAR-γ siRNA reversed the inhibitory effects of Bu1 and Bu2 on foam cell formation, emphasizing the importance of the PPAR-γ signaling pathway. A synergistic effect was also observed when Bu1 and Bu2 were combined with the PPAR-γ agonist thiazolidinedione, further highlighting the pathway's role in regulating macrophage foam cell formation. Beyond foam cell inhibition, all peptides exhibited potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. P1 and P2 significantly reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) levels by inhibiting NF-κB activation. These peptides also alleviated oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Similarly, Bu1 and Bu2 suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokine production and NF-κB nuclear translocation. In oxLDL-treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), all peptides provided endothelial protection by restoring cell viability and oxLDL-suppressed NO levels. They upregulated endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression and downregulated oxidized LDL receptor 1 (LOX-1) expression. The peptides also exhibited anti-apoptotic effects, reducing Bax and cleaved caspase-3 expression, inhibiting cytochrome C release, restoring mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and enhancing Bcl-2 expression. Moreover, the peptides reversed oxLDL-induced oxidative stress by reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, restoring antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD, CAT, and GPx), and lowering malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. In vivo, the peptides demonstrated anti-atherosclerotic activity in atherogenic diet-fed C57BL/6 mice, further validating their therapeutic potential for preventing or mitigating atherosclerosis.
Author(s)
MARASINGHE MARASINGHE PATHIRANALAGE
Issued Date
2025
Awarded Date
2025-02
Type
Dissertation
Keyword
Atherosclerosis, macrophages, BAPs, HUVECs, in vivo, CVDs
Publisher
국립부경대학교 대학원
URI
https://repository.pknu.ac.kr:8443/handle/2021.oak/34026
http://pknu.dcollection.net/common/orgView/200000868348
Affiliation
국립부경대학교 대학원
Department
대학원 식품생명과학과
Advisor
Jae-Young Je
Table Of Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and atherosclerosis 1
1.2 Foam cell formation and associated inflammation and oxidative stress in atherosclerosis and CVDs 2
1.3 Endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis and CVDs 3
1.4 Therapeutic potential of marine-derived bioactive peptides (BAPs) for atherosclerosis and CVDs 5
2 Methodology 7
2.1 Foam cell formation inhibition 7
2.1.1 Materials 7
2.1.2 Oxidation of LDL and determination of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) 7
2.1.3 Cell culture and treatment 8
2.1.4 MTT assay 8
2.1.5 Oil red O (ORO) staining assay 9
2.1.6 Determination of total cholesterol (TC), free cholesterol (FC), and cholesterol ester (CE), and triglyceride (TG) content 9
2.1.7 Cholesterol influx and efflux assay 10
2.1.8 Determination of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels 11
2.1.9 Nitric oxide (NO) determination 11
2.1.10 Western blot analysis 11
2.1.11 Immunostaining 12
2.1.12 siRNA transfection 12
2.1.13 Statistical analysis 13
2.2 Endothelial dysfunction 13
2.2.1 Materials 13
2.2.2 Oxidation of LDL and determination of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) 13
2.2.3 Cell culture and treatment 14
2.2.4 MTT assay 14
2.2.5 Nitric oxide (NO) determination 14
2.2.6 Apoptosis assay 14
2.2.7 Determination of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) 15
2.2.8 Determination of ROS production 15
2.2.9 Determination of SOD, Gpx, and CAT, MDA activity 15
2.2.10 Western blot analysis 16
2.2.11 Statistical analysis 16
2.3 In vivo anti-atherosclerotic effect 16
2.3.1 Animals, treatment, and collection 16
2.3.2 Serum biochemical analysis 18
3 Results 19
3.1 Foam cell formation inhibitory effect of P1 and P2 peptides 19
3.1.1 Effects of P1 and P2 peptides on cell viability and oxLDL-induced macrophage foam cell formation. 19
3.1.2 Effects of P1 and P2 peptides on TC, FC, and CE, and TG levels in oxLDL-treated macrophages 22
3.1.3 Effects of P1 and P2 peptides on cellular cholesterol flux in oxLDL-treated RAW264.7 macrophages 24
3.1.4 Effect of P1 and P2 peptides on oxLDL-induced foam cell formation in hASMCs. 27
3.1.5 Effect of P1 and P2 peptides on oxLDL-induced inflammation 29
3.2 Foam cell formation inhibitory effect of Bu1 and Bu2 peptides 33
3.2.1 Effects of Bu1 and Bu2 peptides on cell viability and on oxLDL-induced foam cell formation in RAW264.7 macrophages and hASMCs. 33
3.2.2 Effect of Bu1 and Bu2 peptides on TC, FC, CE, and TG levels in oxLDL-treated macrophages 37
3.2.3 Effect of Bu1 and Bu2 peptides on cellular cholesterol flux in oxLDL-treated RAW264.7 macrophages 40
3.2.4 Effect of Bu1 and Bu2 peptides on PPAR-γ and LXR-α levels in oxLDL-treated RAW264.7 macrophages 43
3.2.5 Effects of PPAR-γ siRNA transfection on oxLDL-induced foam cell 45
3.2.6 Effects of PPAR-γ agonist, thiazolidinedione (TZD) on oxLDL-induced foam cell 49
3.2.7 Effect of Bu1 and Bu2 peptides on oxLDL-induced inflammation 51
3.3 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on oxLDL-induced Endothelial dysfunction 54
3.3.1 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on HUVECs viability 54
3.3.2 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on LOX-1 expression and NO levels in oxLDL-treated HUVECs 56
3.3.3 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides in oxLDL-mediated apoptosis 60
3.3.4 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on oxLDL-mediated MMP 66
3.3.5. Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 on ROS, SOD, CAT, Gpx, and MDA levels 69
3.4 In vivo effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on atherosclerosis 73
3.4.1 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on mouse body weight and body composition ratio 73
3.4.2 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on lipid deposition on aorta 77
3.4.3 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on liver weight and serum AST and ALT levels 79
3.4.4 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on serum HDL and LDL, TC, and TG levels 81
3.4.5 Effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on cholesterol metabolism and endothelial protection-related protein expressions 81
4 Discussion 87
4.1 Foam cell formation inhibition by P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides 88
4.2 Endothelial protection by P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides 97
4.3 In vivo effect of P1, P2, Bu1, and Bu2 peptides on atherosclerosis 101
5 Conclusion 103
5.1 Conclusion 103
5.2 Future Works 104
6 References 105
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 119
Degree
Doctor
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대학원 > 식품생명과학과
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