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Sleep-Promoting Effects and GABAergic Mechanism of a Lime Peel Supplement

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Alternative Title
라임과피 기능성원료의 수면 증진 효과 및 GABA성 작용기전에 대한 연구: 세포, 동물 및 임상 시험을 통한 과학적 근거 제시
Abstract
Citrus peel contains a high concentration of polyphenolic compounds, some of which have been previously associated with sedative-hypnotic effects through GABAergic mechanisms. However, despite their abundance and bioactive potential, no natural sleep aid derived from citrus peel has yet been scientifically demonstrated. In this study, the sleep-promoting effects of ethanol extracts from five citrus fruits— lemon, lime, grapefruit, mandarin, and orange—were investigated using a pentobarbital-induced sleep model in mice. Among them, lime peel ethanol extract (LIMP) exhibited the most robust hypnotic activity. To enhance the hypnotic efficacy of LIMP, extraction parameters were optimized employing response surface methodology (RSM). The optimal yield and hypnotic activity were achieved with 85% ethanol at 56°C for 15 h. This optimized extract, referred to as the standardized lime peel supplement (SLPS). SLPS administration led to a significant decrease in sleep latency and a marked increase in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep in mice, without altering delta wave activity. Its sleep-inducing effects and activation of GABAA receptors were completely inhibited by bicuculline, a competitive GABAA receptor antagonist, in both in vitro and in vivo assays. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted to further assess the sleep-promoting effect of SLPS in 80 adults reporting subjective sleep disturbances. Following two weeks of daily SLPS supplementation (300 mg/day), participants exhibited significant improvements in polysomnographic parameters, including decreased sleep latency, wake after sleep onset, and total wake time, as well as increased total sleep time, sleep efficiency, and time spent in stage 2 sleep. Daytime sleepiness was also reduced, and no adverse events were reported during the intervention. To determine the constituents mediating these effects, the extract was subjected to a fractionation procedure. The ethyl acetate (EA) fraction, enriched in flavonoids, demonstrated sleep-promoting activity comparable to that of SLPS at a lower dose (51 mg/kg), exerting its effect via the GABA-binding site of the GABAA receptor. Among the major flavonoids in SLPS, naringenin—the aglycone of narirutin—significantly increased sleep duration at 50 mg/kg, and this effect was completely blocked by bicuculline, confirming its GABAA receptor–mediated mechanism in in vivo assay. Taken together, this study is the first to demonstrate that lime peel extract promotes sleep by directly targeting the GABA-binding site of the GABAA receptor. Through both preclinical and clinical investigations, SLPS was validated as a safe and effective natural sleep aid. These findings further highlight the value of citrus peel, a commonly discarded by-product, as a promising functional ingredient for sleep health improvement.|감귤류 껍질 GABAA 수용체를 조절하여 수면증진 효과를 나타내는 것으로 알려진 플라보노이드를 풍부하게 함유하고 있다. 그러나 이러한 생리활성 가능성과 풍부한 자원에도 불구하고, 감귤류 껍질 유래 수면 보조제의 효과가 과학적으로 입증된 사례는 아직 보고된 바 없다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 감귤류인 라임 껍질 주정추출물의 수면증진 효과를 동물 및 인체에서 평가하였고, 그 작용기전을 구명하는 것을 목표로 설정하였다.
감귤류의 수면증진 효과 탐색을 위해, 대표적인 감귤류 5종(레몬, 라임, 자몽, 귤, 오렌지)을 과육과 과피로 구분하여 각각 주정추출물을 제조한 뒤, pentobarbital 유도 수면 가속화시험 모델이 사용되었다. 그 결과, 라임 껍질 주정추출물이 가장 우수한 수면 효과를 확인하였다. 수면효과 및 수율 향상을 위해 반응표면분석법(response surface methodology)을 이용하여 라임 껍질 주정추출물의 추출 조건을 최적화한 결과, 에탄올 농도 85%, 추출 온도 56 °C, 추출 시간 15시간이 최적 조건으로 도출되었다. 이를 기반으로 산업적 대량 생산 공정을 확립하여 표준화된 라임 껍질 주정추출물 (SLPS)을 제조하였다. SLPS은 마우스 모델에서 200 mg/kg 및 400 mg/kg에서 유의한 입면 시간 감소 및 non rapid eye movement (NREM) 수면시간의 증가를 나타냈다. 특히, 수면의 질을 나타내는 지표인 delta activity의 감소 없이 NREM 수면을 증가시켜 생리적 수면 구조를 유지하는 것으로 확인되었다. SLPS의 작용기작을 확인하기 위해 in vivo 및 in vitro 실험을 진행하였다. SLPS는 GABAA 수용체의 GABA 결합 부위에 특이적으로 작용하는 길항제bicuculline에 의해 수면 유도 효과 및 GABAA 수용체의 활동전위 진폭이 완전히 차단됨으로써, GABA 결합 부위를 통한 작용 기전이 입증되었다. 또한, SLPS 처리시, [3H] muscimol 결합을 농도의존적으로 억제하였으며, IC50 (0.026 mg/ml)을 도출하였다.
인체에서의 수면 효과는 경도 수면장애를 가진 성인 80명을 대상으로 한 무작위 배정, 이중 눈가림, 대조군 비교을 통해 평가되었다. 2주간 매일 300 mg의 SLPS를 섭취한 결과, 수면다원검사에서 입면시간, 입면 후 각성시간, 총 각성시간이 유의하게 감소하였으며, 총 수면시간, 수면효율, Stage 2 수면이 유의하게 증가하였다. 주간 졸림 또한 완화되었고, 시험 기간 동안 이상반응은 보고되지 않았다.
SLPS의 활성성분 확인을 위한 분획 실험 결과, 플라보노이드를 다량 함유한 에틸아세테이트 (EA) 분획은 저용량 (51 mg/kg)에서도 SLPS와 유사한 수면 유도 효과를 나타냈으며, 이 역시 GABAA 수용체의 GABA 결합 부위를 통해 작용함이 확인되었다. 특히 주요 플라보노이드 중 하나인 naringenin (narirutin의 aglycone 형태)은 50 mg/kg에서 유의한 수면 연장 효과를 보였고, 이 효과는 bicuculline에 의해 완전히 차단되어 그 기전이 GABA 수용체를 통한 것임이 입증되었다.
결론적으로 본 연구는 SLPS는 GABAA 수용체의 GABA 결합 부위에 직접 작용하여 수면 유도 효과를 나타냄을 최초로 입증하였으며, 전임상 및 인체적용시험을 통해 안전하고 효과적인 천연 수면 보조제로서의 가능성을 보여주었다. 더불어, Benzodiazepine결합 부위에 작용하는 수면제와 다르게 내성, 의존성 등이 없다고 알려진 GABA 결합 부위에 작용하여, 건강기능식품 측면에서 매우 우수한 것으로 사료된다.
Author(s)
김성희
Issued Date
2025
Awarded Date
2025-08
Type
Dissertation
Keyword
lime peel, sleep, GABA type A receptor, GABA-binding site
Publisher
국립부경대학교 대학원
URI
https://repository.pknu.ac.kr:8443/handle/2021.oak/34374
http://pknu.dcollection.net/common/orgView/200000903825
Alternative Author(s)
Kim Seonghui
Affiliation
국립부경대학교 대학원
Department
대학원 식품공학과
Advisor
Suengmok Cho
Table Of Contents
Chapter 1. General introduction 1
1.1. The Importance of sleep for human health 1
1.2. Mechanisms of action of hypnotics and natural sleep aids 2
1.3. The GABAA receptor and its roles in sleep regulation 4
1.4. Objectives of this study 6
1.5. References 12
Chapter 2. Screening of citrus species and optimization of extraction conditions of lime peel supplement 18
Abstract 18
2.1. Introduction 19
2.2. Materials and Methods 22
2.2.1. Materials 22
2.2.2. Preparation of citrus peel extracts 22
2.2.3. Animals 22
2.2.4. Pentobarbital-induced sleep test 24
2.2.5. Experimental design 25
2.2.6. Data analysis and optimization 25
2.2.7. Statistical analysis 26
2.3. Results 27
2.3.1. Effects of the citrus peel extracts in pentobarbital-treated mice 27
2.3.2. Effects of roasting treatment on the hypnotic activity of the lime peel extracts 27
2.3.3. Extraction optimization for hypnotic effect of the lime peel supplement 31
2.3.4. Verification of hypnotic effects of lime peel supplements 40
2.4. Discussion 43
2.5. References 46
Chapter 3. Preclinical Evaluation of sleep-promoting effects and GABAergic mechanism of a standardized lime peel supplement 49
Abstract 49
3.1. Introduction 51
3.2. Materials and Methods 53
3.2.1. Materials 53
3.2.2. Preparation of the standardized lime peel supplement 53
3.2.3. Animals 53
3.2.4. Pentobarbital-induced sleep test 54
3.2.5. Analysis of sleep structure and profile 54
3.2.6. Binding assay for the GABA-binding site of the GABAA receptor 55
3.2.7. Primary neuron culture and electrophysiological measurements 56
3.2.8. Statistical analysis 57
3.3. Results 58
3.3.1. Dose-response evaluation of hypnotic effects in the pentobarbital-induced sleep test 58
3.3.2. Evaluation of sleep-promoting effects based on analysis of sleep architecture and profile 58
3.3.3. In vitro GABAergic mechanism 60
3.3.4. In vivo GABAergic mechanism 64
3.4. Discussion 73
3.5. References 77
Chapter 4. Clinical evaluation of efficacy and safety of the standardized lime peel supplement in adults with sleep disturbance 82
Abstract 82
4.1. Introduction 84
4.2. Methods 86
4.2.1. Preparation of test samples 86
4.2.2. Participants 86
4.2.3. Study design 87
4.2.4. Anthropometric and dietary assessment 88
4.2.5. Sleep questionnaires scales 89
4.2.6. Polysomnography 89
4.2.7. Sample size estimation and statistical analysis 90
4.3. Results 92
4.3.1. Subjects and compliance 92
4.3.2. Polysomnography outcomes 92
4.3.3. Self-report sleep outcomes 96
4.3.4. Safety evaluation 97
4.4. Discussion 106
4.5. References 111
Chapter 5. Identification of active flavonoids in the standardized lime peel supplement 116
Abstract 116
5.1. Introduction 118
5.2. Materials and Methods 120
5.2.1. Materials 120
5.2.2. Preparation of ethyl acetate fraction 120
5.2.3. Animals 120
5.2.4. Pentobarbital-induced sleep test 120
5.2.5. Primary neuron culture and electrophysiological measurements 121
5.2.6. Total flavonoid contents 121
5.2.7. HPLC analysis for flavonoid constituents 121
5.2.8. UPLC-MS/MS analysis for flavonoid constituents 122
5.2.9. Statistical analysis 123
5.3. Results 124
5.3.1. Hypnotic effects of the ethyl acetate fraction 124
5.3.2. In vitro GABAergic mechanism of the ethyl acetate 124
5.3.3. Profiling and Quantification of Flavonoids 126
5.3.4. Hypnotic effects of major flavonoids 131
5.3.5. Hypnotic effects and in vivo action mechanism of naringenin 131
5.4. Discussion 150
5.5. References 153
Summary 158
Abstract (in Korean) 161
Publications 164
Degree
Doctor
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